The damage of sweat glands in patients with extensive deep burns results in the loss of thermoregulation, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients. At present, there are many researches on the repair of sweat gland function, but the mechanism of human sweat gland development has not been fully clarified. More and more studies have shown that the cascaded pathways of Wnt/β-catenin, ecto- dysplasin A/ectodysplasin A receptor/nuclear factor-κB, sonic hedgehog, and forkhead box transcription factor jointly affect the development of sweat glands, and it has been reported that the cascaded signaling pathways can be used to achieve the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro. This article reviews the signaling pathways that affect the development of sweat glands and their involvement in the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro.
Adenoids/metabolism* ; Hedgehog Proteins/metabolism* ; Humans ; Quality of Life ; Signal Transduction ; Sweat/metabolism* ; Sweat Glands/physiology*

Sweat gland is one of the important appendage organs of the skin, which plays an important role in thermoregulation and homeostasis maintenance. Sweat glands are damaged and unable to self-repair after burns, resulting in perspiration disorders eventually. However, current clinical strategies cannot restore the function of the damaged sweat glands effectively. Therefore, it is urgent to seek treatments that can promote the regeneration of sweat glands and restore their normal functions. Stem cells have extensive sources, low immunogenicity, high proliferation capacity, and multi-directional differentiation potential, which have become a focus in the field of regenerative medicine. In recent years, a variety of stem cells have been induced to differentiate into sweat gland-like tissue with certain secretory function, which provides treatment direction for sweat gland regeneration after burns in clinic. This article reviews the recent research advances on the application of stem cells in sweat gland regeneration from the perspectives of the manner by which stem cells transform into sweat gland cells in different environments and their influencing factors.
Cell Differentiation/physiology* ; Regeneration/physiology* ; Skin ; Stem Cells ; Sweat Glands/physiology*

BACKGROUND: Sweat secreted by eccrine sweat glands is transported to the skin surface through the lumen. The eccrine sweat gland develops from the initial solid bud to the final gland structure with a lumen, but how the lumen is formed and the mechanism of lumen formation have not yet been fully elucidated. This study aimed to investigate the mechanism of lumen formation of eccrine gland organoids (EGOs). METHODS: Human eccrine sweat glands were isolated from the skin for tissue culture, and the primary cultured cells were collected and cultured in Matrigel for 14 days in vitro. EGOs at different development days were collected for hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining to observe morphological changes and for immunofluorescence staining of proliferation marker Ki67, cellular motility marker filamentous actin (F-actin), and autophagy marker LC3B. Western blotting was used to detect the expression of Ki67, F-actin, and LC3B. Moreover, apoptosis was detected using a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) apoptosis assay kit, and the expression of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase and Caspase-3 was detected by Western blot. In addition, 3-methyladenine (3MA) was used as an autophagy inhibitor to detect whether the formation of sweat glands can be effectively inhibited. RESULTS: The results showed that a single gland cell proliferated rapidly and formed EGOs on day 4. The earliest lumen formation was observed on day 6. From day 8 to day 14, the rate of lumen formation in EGOs increased significantly. The immunofluorescence and Western blot analyses showed that the expression of Ki67 gradually decreased with the increase in days, while the F-actin expression level did not change. Notably, the expression of autophagy marker LC3B was detected in the interior cells of EGOs as the apoptosis signal of EGOs was negative. Compared with the control group, the autophagy inhibitor 3MA can effectively limit the formation rate of the lumen and reduce the inner diameter of EGOs. CONCLUSION Using our model of eccrine gland 3D-reconstruction in Matrigel, we determined that autophagy rather than apoptosis plays a role in the lumen formation of EGOs.
Apoptosis ; Autophagy ; Eccrine Glands ; Epithelial Cells ; Humans ; Organoids

Sweat glands are widely distributed in human skin, among which eccrine sweat glands play major roles in heat dissipation and sweat secretion. Sweat secretion is mainly regulated by nervous system and includes two processes of secretion of secretory coil and reabsorption of sweat duct, involving various ion channels and proteins such as calcium ion channel, potassium ion channel, sodium-potassium-chloride co-transporter 1, Best2 protein, aquaporin 5, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, and epithelial sodium ion channel. This paper reviews the nerve conduction system and various ion channels involved in sweat secretion of exocrine sweat glands in order to provide a theoretical basis for the study of regeneration, repair, and transformation of stem cells.
Eccrine Glands/metabolism* ; Humans ; Sweat/metabolism*

Skin disease can be caused by high temperature, and it is related to the temperature regulation mechanism of human body, adaptation reaction to temperature change, and health problems due to the recent problematic climate change. In hyperthermia, hot and dry skin is typical manifestation, and sometimes the skin color turns red. On the other hand, the skin color can become pale in severe febrile convulsion. Burn is a skin damage caused by heat, and not only the skin but also the underlying tissues can be destroyed in severe case. It is important to determine the degree and extent of the burn to treat adequately. In the case of severe burns, systemic treatment and prevention of infection or shock should be needed. Miliaria, also called “sweat rash,” occurs when the sweat is accumulated as the sweat gland is closed and sweat cannot be secreted to the surface of the skin. The basis of treating miliaria is to keep the patient in a cool environment. Erythema ab igne is defined as a network of hyperpigmentation that occurs after prolonged exposure to heat that is not enough to cause burn. It may disappear when exposure to heat is interrupted, but it may remain permanently. The extent and mechanism of heat-induced skin disease very diverse and it should be carefully assessed for the severity of each disease, the treatment method and prognosis.
Burns ; Climate Change ; Erythema ; Fever ; Hand ; Hot Temperature ; Human Body ; Humans ; Hyperpigmentation ; Methods ; Miliaria ; Prognosis ; Seizures, Febrile ; Shock ; Skin Diseases ; Skin Pigmentation ; Skin ; Sweat ; Sweat Glands

Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia (AED) is a rare hereditary disorder with a triad of sparse hair, dental hypoplasia, and anhidrosis. Here we report a case of AED with food allergy and atopic eczema. The patient was a 11-month-old boy admitted to our hospital with pyrexia for 2 weeks. He presented with a history of dry skin, eczema, and food allergy to egg. On clinical examination, his body temperature was 38.8°C, with dry skin and eczema almost all over the body, sparse eyebrows, and scalp hair. Laboratory investigations and physical examination did not show any evidence of infection. Radioallergosorbent test was positive to egg yolk, egg white, ovomucoid, milk, house dust, and house dust mite. As the child did not sweat despite the high fever, we performed the sweat test which revealed a total lack of sweat glands. Genetic examination revealed a mutation of the EDA gene and he was diagnosed as AED. His pyrexia improved upon cooling with ice and fan. His mother had lost 8 teeth and her sweat test demonstrated low sweating, suggestive of her being a carrier of AED. Atopy and immune deficiencies have been shown to have a higher prevalence in patients with AED. Disruption of the skin barrier in patients with AED make them more prone to allergic diseases such as atopic eczema, bronchial asthma, allergic rhinitis and food allergy. Careful assessment of the familial history is essential to differentiate AED when examining patients with pyrexia of unknown origin and comorbid allergic diseases.
Asthma ; Body Temperature ; Child ; Dermatitis, Atopic ; Dust ; Ectodermal Dysplasia ; Eczema ; Egg White ; Egg Yolk ; Eyebrows ; Fever ; Food Hypersensitivity ; Hair ; Humans ; Hypohidrosis ; Ice ; Infant ; Male ; Milk ; Mothers ; Ovomucin ; Ovum ; Physical Examination ; Prevalence ; Pyroglyphidae ; Radioallergosorbent Test ; Rhinitis, Allergic ; Scalp ; Skin ; Sweat ; Sweat Glands ; Sweating ; Tooth

Eccrine porocarcinoma is a rare malignant tumor arising from the intraepidermal ductal portion of the eccrine sweat gland. It develops either spontaneously or from a long standing benign eccrine poroma. This entity usually affects older people and is commonly located on the lower extremities, the trunk, and the head. We report a case of eccrine porocarcinoma on the left cheek in an 85-year-old male. In our case, the tumor was treated with wide excision and postoperative adjuvant radiation therapy. The patient recovered well without local recurrence and distant metastasis during the 14-month follow-up period. Wide excision and postoperative adjuvant radiation therapy can be considered as a safe and effective treatment option in treating patients with eccrine porocarcinoma.
Aged, 80 and over ; Cheek ; Eccrine Porocarcinoma ; Follow-Up Studies ; Head ; Humans ; Lower Extremity ; Male ; Neoplasm Metastasis ; Poroma ; Radiotherapy, Adjuvant ; Recurrence ; Sweat Gland Neoplasms ; Sweat Glands

Apocrine hidrocystoma, also called apocrine cystadenoma, is a benign cystic tumor-like lesion that arises from the proliferation of apocrine glands. Clinically, it usually occurs singly as a unilocular or multilocular, dome-shaped translucent cyst. Histologically, it appears as unilocular or multilocular cysts composed of an inner layer of single or double layer of secretory columnar epithelium with decapitation secretion lying above an outer myoepithelial cell layer. Apocrine hidrocystomas mostly occur within the head and neck region and involvement of genitalia is extremely rare. This paper emphasizes the importance of considering the differential diagnosis of a genital cystic lesion. Herein, we report a case of apocrine hidrocystoma occurring in the penis and compare the clinicopathological characteristics of apocrine hidrocystoma in genitalia with the previous cases.
Apocrine Glands ; Cystadenoma ; Decapitation ; Deception ; Diagnosis, Differential ; Epithelium ; Genitalia ; Head ; Hidrocystoma ; Male ; Neck ; Penis

Hair follicle nevus (HFN) is a rare, benign, follicular hamartoma that most frequently presents as a congenital nodule on the face. We experienced a rare case of HFN on the neck of a 14-year-old boy and performed a pilot immunohistochemical study with cytokeratin 19 (CK19) to compare the staining pattern of hair follicles in HFN and its differential diagnoses, accessory tragus, cervical chondrocutaneous branchial remnants (CCBR) and trichofolliculoma. With hematoxylin and eosin stain, HFN showed numerous tiny hair follicles in the dermis with several sebaceous and eccrine glands, and perifollicular fibrous thickening. With CK19 stain, some hair follicles in HFN and CCBR showed positive expression, a few hair follicles in accessory tragus showed weak expression, and no hair follicles in trichofolliculoma showed expression. The present report supports the view that HFN, accessory tragus and CCBR are within the same spectrum of hamartomas.
Adolescent ; Dermis ; Diagnosis, Differential ; Eccrine Glands ; Eosine Yellowish-(YS) ; Hair Follicle ; Hair ; Hamartoma ; Hematoxylin ; Humans ; Keratin-19 ; Male ; Neck ; Nevus

Hidradenoma papilliferum is a rare benign cystic tumor that originates from apocrine glands or anogenital mammary glands. Here, we describe 2 cases of hidradenoma papilliferum of the anus. Two female patients aged 39 and 35 presented with perianal masses with hemorrhoids. The patients underwent hemorrhoidectomy and excision of the lesion. Histopathology confirmed the masses as hidradenoma papilliferum. The postoperative course was uneventful for both patients, and there were no recurrences after 18 and 12 months of follow-up, respectively. Proctologists should consider hidradenoma papilliferum in their differential diagnosis of benign anal tumors. Surgical excision is necessary for diagnosis and treatment of hidradenoma papilliferum.
Acrospiroma ; Anal Canal ; Apocrine Glands ; Diagnosis ; Diagnosis, Differential ; Female ; Follow-Up Studies ; Hemorrhoidectomy ; Hemorrhoids ; Humans ; Mammary Glands, Human ; Recurrence